Tutorial Week 9 ● Reflection

In this week’s tutorial task, we were required to see how closely does the listening process is mirrored in the tasks in the Malaysian English textbook. Also, we needed to see to what extent the tasks assist in developing the listening skills of the learners. After looking at two chapters and discussing it with my coursemates, we found that the activities reflect the listening skills well. However, we feel that the activities helps learners in their listening as most activities usually require learners to listen for information to complete an activity or listening on how to pronounce a consonant or a word. Activities given provide learners with the top-down and also bottom-up learning process which helps learners learn better. In my opinion, I feel that the textbook has provided learners with activities that are able to enhance the learners’ listening skills; however, from my past experience, teachers usually skip these tasks as they feel that it is troublesome and a waste of time. Therefore, it is crucial that teacher realises the importance of the listening skills and pay more attention to this skill along with the other language learning skills.

Tutorial Week 9:Designing Materials for Listening

• Preview extracts from a local textbook
• Form 2 Textbook Chapter 3: Famous Faces

Page 32:

 

•  How closely do you feel that the listening process is mirrored in these materials?
• Learners are required to converse with a partner in classroom. One of them can take the role of a famous personality. The roles of a fan and a famous person can be reverse so that both the learners can have the chance to express, listen and react.
• To what extent do they assist in developing the listening skills of our learners?
• Authenticity exist in this task as the language reflect real discourse when they are giving compliment and congratulate. Language used is not difficult. For example ‘You sang the song beautifully.’ The other partner has to listen for the compliment and give acknowledgement.

Page 36:

• How closely do you feel that the listening process is mirrored in these materials?
• Learners are required to listen to the conversation in order to fill in the blanks to complete the statements given in the task. It is a must for learners to listen attentively to given conversation, if they fail to do so, they will not be able to answer the questions correctly.
• In task B, the situation is the same. Learners are to listen to the conversation again to answer the questions given in task B.
• To what extent do they assist in developing the listening skills of our learners?
• Learners are to listen to the conversation attentively in order to understand and also identify the answers. Learners are listening for a purpose, with this, they will pay more attention to the conversation given.
• Not only that, learners have a background knowledge regarding the theme of the conversation as they have learnt it in the previous tasks. This allows them to be familiar and have a rough idea on the conversation where top-down processing occurs.
• The more exposure the listener has to them, the greater the ability to comprehend.

Page 38:

• How closely do you feel that the listening process is mirrored in these materials?
• In activity A, learners are required to say words after the teacher. This activity focuses on the consonants of /v/ and /w/.
• In activity B, learners are required to pronounce words that they have learned in activity A.
• To what extent do they assist in developing the listening skills of our learners?
• In activity A, it is a bottom-up practice activity. Learners have to listen and repeat to the words after the teacher. Learners have to pay attention and listen accurately to the sound in order for them to get the pronunciation correctly.
• In activity B, it is a top-down activity since learners have to use their schemata of correct pronunciation of the words so that they can say the sentences aloud. This encourage learners to discuss what they already know about.
• We noticed that this activity has both bottom-up and top-down approach. Correlation between two approaches can help the learners to sharpen their listening skill.

• Preview extracts from a local textbook.
• Form 2 Textbook Chapter 13: Our Green Heritage

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• How closely do you feel that the listening process is mirrored in these materials?
• For task A, the learners are to listen to a recording and then pay attention to the sequence of the story. After that, they need to sequence the picture given in the textbook.
• For task B, the learners need to listen to the recording again and then they need to sequence the sentences given in the textbook.
• To what extent do they assist in developing the listening skills of our learners?
• For task A and B, the learners are listening for a purpose, they need to listen attentively to details from the recording.
• The task relates to top down process as it requires learners’ background knowledge to enable them to relate the description of recording with the picture given.  

Week 8 ● Reflection

In this week’s tasks, we were asked to compare and contrast the different adaptation techniques between Maley and Tomlinson, McDonough and Shaw and also Masuhara. We were also asked to compare and contrast the materials adaptation procedures. Looking the techniques and procedures, I realised it’s all almost similar, it’s the terms that are different. It was a good task as I feel that it is necessary for teachers to adapt their materials to fit the students’ learning context and objectives.

Materials adaptation is something I feel has to be applied somehow or rather as no two classrooms are the same. By adapting the materials, learners will be able to learn better as the materials can fit them better. Despite that, it is really up to the teacher to choose to apply these techniques of adaptation as some teachers may think the textbook and material itself is good enough for every students.

I remember back in high school, my friend from a different class were discussing about our English teachers and we were comparing the teachers and how they taught. I remember how my friend complained that the teacher follows the textbook and never changes or make the class more interesting which in turn resulted in the class being boring and uninteresting. On the other hand, my teacher would always add activities, modify the materials to suit our class. It was fun and engaging and we were given chances to interact more in the class and do extra activities which made us love our English lesson.

In my opinion, teachers should at least try to adapt the materials in suiting the learners as it will be much more effective. By having these techniques and procedures, I would definitely try to apply materials adaptation to enhance my teaching next time.

*This reflection was written on the 18th of December. The date was changed because I thought it'd be better if it was posted after the respective task.

Tutorial Week 7 ● Reflection

For the tutorial this week, we were required to sketch out a digital language learning material (DLLM) interface and explain our concept based on week 7’s lecture notes and articles given. I am thankful that I was exposed to digital learning materials in my first semester but I only knew a little about it. All I knew was that the materials used were tools related to the computer and Internet. Therefore, this week’s lesson on DLLM allowed me to understand it better and I really enjoyed reading about it.

I’ve learnt that in creating materials/DLLM, we have to consider many aspects such as the learning objects and materials, the usability of that particular material, etc. We have to see how practical is the material and how would learners accept it or use it as a language learning material. Seeing how the DLLM corresponds with the needs of the learners and the pedagogical usability. I realised DLLM is not created because we want the material to be interesting and students will pay more attention in class; besides that, it has to focus on how language is being learnt and how learners can use these DLLM to improve and apply in their daily lives.

I enjoyed this tutorial as it allowed us to create a DLLM in whatever way we wanted. I enjoyed searching through the Internet to find suitable websites and software that are interesting, fun and most importantly, user friendly. We chose ToonDoo as we found that it was practical and it had the ‘criteria’ we wanted. We thought its very user friendly and it will not be difficult for high school learners to use it. After deciding on the suitable website/material, we created a comic strip and came up with questions that will enable learners to use the website to answer the questions given.

This week’s tutorial task was definitely fun and helpful as I learnt more about DLLM and how it is important to not just create a DLLM for the sake of having an interesting activity, but to create a DLLM to aid and enhance one’s language learning process. I will definitely follow these theories and principles in designing an interesting and useful DLLM for my learners next time.

Tutorial Week 7: Sketching Out A Digital Language Learning Material

Digital Language Learning Materials.pptx

Week 7: "e"-fied Class

We completed this task in our assignment group where we discussed on each checkpoint.

·         Declan

·         Elucia

·         Glenn

·         Kat (Loh Chia Yee)

·         Stennia

Checkpoint 1: Search for digital language learning materials.

• Bitstrips
• http://www.bitstripsforschools.com/
• Fakebook
• http://www.classtools.net/FB/home-page
• Pronunciation Animation
• http://www.cambridge.org/elt/resources/skills/interactive/pron_animations/index.htm
• Glogster
• http://www.glogster.com/
• Languagelab
• http://www.languagelab.com/
• 19 pencils
• http://19pencils.com/
• English4u
• http://www.english-4u.de
• Edudemic
• http://www.edudemic.com/

Checkpoint 2: List down SLA theories and principles

Theories

• Behaviourist
• Innatist
• Interactionist
  

Principles

• Materials should help learners to develop confidence
• What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful
• Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment
• Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught
• Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use
• The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.
• Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes.
• Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed
• Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes
• Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction.
• Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice
• Materials should provide opportunities for outcome and feedback
• Materials should help the learner to develop cultural awareness and sensitivity.
• Materials should reflect the reality of language use.
• Materials should help learners to learn in ways similar to the circumstances in which they will have to use the language.
• Materials should help to create readiness to learn.

Checkpoint 3: Sketch out a rough outline of your DLLM.

The DLLM that we have in mind is one which involves comic strips where students will be able to learn from it. We came up with a simple activity as an example as seen below:

Our aim of the activity is to let the students enhance their knowledge of vocabulary by finding synonyms of the given word in which they need to create a sentence for each word.

Learning object        : Vocabulary

Learning material      : Comic created from Bitstrips (http://www.bitstrips.com/)

Usability:

• Control of the students: The activity is a simple activity which only requires students to focus on different vocabulary and creating simple sentences.
• Choice of the students: An image is given to the students where it is based on real life situation.
• It is collaborative learning process where students work together to find synonyms of the given word
• The activity is also applicable as they are able to learn new vocabulary in which aid them in having a variety of words to be used while completing a writing task.
• Students will also be able to know that some words may have the same meaning but used differently.

Checkpoint 4: Summarize explanation for each criteria

• Errors: Errors are divided into two groups which are serious and less serious. Serious is when the users’ outputs are threatened while less serious refers to the work of the users are disturb.

• Efficiency: It is to know how well the experienced users can operate an application after they have mastered it.
  

• Learnability: It depends on the duration of time for the beginners uses system before they learn the important skills necessary to do tasks.
  

• Memorability: Refers to an occasional users’ ability who has previously used the system to remember its operational principle.     

Explain each criterion for visual design

• Harmony
• It is the way to which the display in DLLM interacts together in a pleasing-manner. This can achieved through repetition and rhythm. It pulls the pieces of visual image together and the rhythm is the flow of depicted in a visual and helps direct eye movement. For example when we use prezi or power point, we need to use 3x3 grids to ensure there is harmony.
• Balance and symmetry
• It refers to the element of different sizes can be brought into balance by either moving them closer or further from the centre of the page. Symmetry is when one half of a visual display is a mirror image of the other half. There are different types of symmetry:
• Horizontal symmetry
• Approximate horizontal symmetry
• Radial symmetry
• Asymmetry
• Emphasis
• It is to create dominance and focus in their work. It emphasis on colour, value, shape or other design elements to achieve dominance. For example, the colour of the background must be dark and the written words on the slides must be in light colour. This is to ensure that there is a contrast on the slide. Also, the main topic must be either middle or on top with bigger font size to tell what is the main topic.
• Alignment
• It is important for the material to have alignment as it is for the organization and grouping. Should visually maximize differences between texts, label and pictures.
• Unity
• Unity is the relationship among visual elements that helps all the elements to work together. It gives a sense of closure or oneness to visual image. It can be achieved through use of similar shapes, common pattern or use of a common background.

Tutorial Week 6 ● Reflection

In week four and week five’s tutorial, each group gave a presentation on their respective checklist. It was interesting to see how many checklist we can use to evaluate a material. After the presentation, we were given an English textbook/course book by Miss JC. Our task was to use our respective checklist to evaluate and list out the problems we faced during the evaluation. “Easy job. Just follow the criteria/features given in Littlejohn’s checklist, tick the ones that the chapters have,” I thought. I was wrong.

Referring to the problems stated in the PowerPoint presentation, our group struggled quite a bit with how the tasks should be divided and with the meaning of some criteria. Despite the definition and examples given in the article, we still couldn’t fully understand the criteria. After some discussion with the group, we decided to evaluate based on our understanding of the criteria/features. It was a relieve knowing what we’ve discussed were correct after our presentation; and it was good that Miss JC further explained the meaning of different criteria/features.

I can’t say I enjoyed this task, but I know that I’ve learnt a lot through it. Materials evaluation isn’t as easy as it looks like, and it takes a large amount of effort in analysing each task. I’ve learnt that it is important to be open to other people’s opinion and feedback on things. Everyone is different in the way they think, and I realise it’s good to be able to listen to different interpretations and see things in other people’s perspective. With this, it is important that teachers also seek other teachers for different opinion on the tasks/activity in the textbook. The teachers will not only be able to share their own experiences with one another, they can also work together to produce better materials that are interesting and will be able to suit different learners.

Littlejohn’s checklist is a good checklist to be used as it is specific and it looks at every aspect of the material. However, I feel that it may be very difficult to use this checklist all the time. Analysing materials with this checklist requires patience as the analysis can be quite tedious. Teachers will not have sufficient amount of time to go through each tasks as they have other responsibilities and needs to cater to. Thus, I recommend that teachers try to allocate a time to at least analyse 5-8 tasks a day; other checklists can also be used too. J

*This reflection was written on the 5th of November. The date was changed because I thought it'd be better if it was posted after the respective task.

Tutorial Week 6: Evaluation and Problems Faced While Using Littlejohn's Checklist

Evaluation and Problems Faced While Using Littlejohn's Checklist

Tutorial Week 4 & 5 ● Reflection

This week’s tutorial task was interesting, I must say. I never knew there were checklists in evaluating materials till I joined this course, so it was something new for me. J We were required to give a presentation base on the checklist we were given, chose. We were given a choice on which author’s checklist we would like to present on; not knowing that it’d be one of the toughest checklists to understand, we chose the author with what we thought had the most interesting name, Andrew Littlejohn.

I struggled really hard the first time I read the article on Littlejohn’s checklist, I couldn’t understand what it was about and I found it hard to focus while reading. I realised just reading the article didn't help; so I decided to highlight important points and make annotations. After that, re-reading it for around four times really allowed me to understand the main points, and I realised it wasn't as tough as I thought it would be.

As I was trying to understand Littlejohn’s article, it was interesting to see how he introduces the framework and how there are different levels in analysing the materials. I felt that it was helpful that he arranged it in a way that there are different levels in analysing, first the explicit nature of the material, then he slowly moves in to a more specific/deeper level of analysis. I really like this checklist as it looks at every aspect of the material. However, seeing so many criteria/features in the checklist, I do think that it can be time consuming.

Through this tutorial task, I found out the importance of evaluating a material. Teachers will be able to see what the material lacks, they can also improve the materials to suit the classroom and to achieve learning objectives. However, I feel that the checklist can only do so much in how effective a material can be, the rest belongs to the effort a teacher puts in order to produce a good material. I would definitely try to use this checklist in the future in hopes of providing my future learners a better language learning material. J

*This reflection was written on the 5th of November. The date was changed because I thought it'd be better if it was posted after the respective task.

Tutorial Week 4 & 5: Presentation on the article "The analysis of language teaching materials: inside the Trojan Horse"

The Analysis of Language Teaching Materials by Glenn A. Hilarion

Tutorial Week 3 ● Reflection

This week’s tutorial task was much more difficult compared to the one before. We had to answer four questions given based on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). At our first discussion on this tutorial task, we didn’t quite know how to answer the questions as we were all quite confused. We then divided tasks where we explained our findings to one another after we’ve completed it.

After tutorial class, we realised our answers weren’t even close to what Miss JC has answered and explained. We only manage to come out with few theories that are correct; even so, we did not really understand the meaning of the theories in CLT. It took us quite some time to re-read and understand what is CLT and how we should apply it.

I guess it never really occurred to me that CLT plays a big role in language teaching. Having known about CLT from last semester’s SLA course, I thought it was just a part of the sociocultural theory of SLA and there are only few things to follow. Well, now I see that there is more to CLT than I thought. Looking at the different components in the communicative competence, I am able to see how it helps learners to learn. It is encouraging to see how CLT allows learners to learn through negotiation of meaning between speaker and hearer or reader and writer. I’ve always thought CLT is only about speaking and listening; hence, it was interesting that CLT includes the communication between writer and speaker.

Reading the three articles provided, I began to really understand what CLT is all about. And reflecting back to the days when I was in high school, I am really glad that my teacher were one of the teachers that implements CLT in the classroom. I still remember my teacher would always conduct activities where we were required to give opinions and share our experiences.

Reading through the principles of CLT, it made me remember one of the lessons in my Form 5 English class.  I can’t remember which topic the lesson was on, but it was one of the lessons I’d never forget. Miss Wong talked about her experiences on how she was terrible at rearing animals. She elaborated on each animals she reared (a dog, a rabbit, a tortoise, and hamsters) in which the animals either ended up escaping or moving on to the next life. Not only were the stories humorous, Miss Wong included us while she was telling the story. She would asked us how one actually rears a rabbit, and asked our opinions on whether or not one should bathe hamsters, etc. Of course, she would want us to express ourselves in the target language – English. After asking, she would continue sharing her experiences. Explanation on certain words or phrases were also given to ensure that we all understand. It was the first (and I think the last) time I saw all my classmates so interested and eager to share their opinions and listen to Miss Wong.

Looking at the experience mentioned above, I could see that Miss Wong had applied CLT in her lesson. The language used in that situation was informal, but it was appropriate at that situation. There are also times where we were required to speak formally and use the proper linguistic items. Miss Wong always made it clear on when we needed to be formal or informal depending on the situation (strategic & discourse competence). Reflecting back, it is very encouraging to see that CLT was applied in my lessons. J

As a future language teacher, I would definitely try my best in applying CLT in my teaching. However, I feel that both accuracy and fluency have the same importance. Sticking to a little more ‘traditional’ way, I would want to try my best in also focusing on accuracy even though I know it isn’t easy. Also, I would try my best to make students feel at ease when I teach as I don’t want to make them feel pressured to speak in English; that would defeat the purpose of CLT. Having been a student before, and having friends who hates speaking in English, I know how it feels to be pressured to speak in class. Hence, I will try my best in finding ways to ensure my learners express themselves without being pressured where they can learn the language at the same time. J

*This reflection was written on the 5th of November. The date was changed because I thought it'd be better if it was posted after the respective task.

Tutorial Week 3

a) Identify theory behind communicative language teaching (CLT).

Informations found in Spada and Savignon’s article:

There are many answers to the question “What is CLT?” depending on whom you ask. In this article by Spada, many say that CLT is meaning-based but they have different perceptions on the emphasis. Some says that it focuses the comprehension and production of message but not teaching or correction of language form; some says that CLT is an approach to L2 instruction as well as it includes both fluency and accuracy. These different perspectives are believed due to the presence and absence of the attention in language form which is when Howatt’s (1984) distinction on weak and strong CLT came about.

Hymes’ theory of communicative competence and the belief that knowing a language includes more than knowledge of the rules of grammar also knowledge of the rules of language has influenced CLT. Hyme introduced this theory in broadening the current conceptualizations of language. In this article, the theories stated are very closely related to SLA where the comprehensible input and interactionist hypothesis by Krashen and Long has been discussed. Both hypotheses emphasize on the central role of meaningful communication in language acquisition.

In Savignon’s article, he said Hymes (1971) proposed the term communicative competence to represent the use of language in social context, the observance of sociolinguistic norms of appropriacy. Hymes’ communicative competence was seen as the same as Halliday’s meaning potential where his focus was also on language as a social behavior and not language learning. Berns (1990) stresses that the definition of a communicative competence appropriate for learners requires an understanding of the sociocultural contexts of language use.

Savignon also raised the issue on how grammar and CLT, communication cannot take place with the absence of structure or grammar. It is written that Canale and Swain (1980) sought to put grammatical competence within a more broadly defined communicative competence. In the development of communicative ability, the research findings have support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning-focused experience. Grammar is important in communication, and leaners learn grammar best when they relate it to their communicative needs and experience.

At the end the article, Savignon also mentioned that communicative language teaching cannot continue without the involvement of classroom teachers. Hence, teachers need to find materials that work to involve learners in the experience of communication.

Theories behind communicative language teaching

Communicative Competence has four components:

i)             Linguistic competence

ii)            Discourse competence

iii)           Pragmatic competence

iv)           Strategic competence

Linguistic competence is the knowledge one has in the application of linguistic items; in order words, linguistic competence is the knowledge on how the language system is being used in communication. Linguistic items include pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Learners with such competence possess the ability to utilise grammar of a spoken language to express themselves. In addition, the learner will demonstrate good knowledge in using appropriate words while communicating. However, if one lacks linguistic competence, he or she will face difficulties in achieving the communication goal in which will lead to communication breakdown.

Discourse competence refers to the ability to produce meaningful speech in such way where ideas are linked across sentences (written discourse) or utterances (spoken discourse). In discourse competence, sentences are assembled following the cohesion rules and rhetorical organisation. Cohesion is how we make use of linguistic items (vocabulary, grammar, etc) to link ideas and meaning in a sentence. Eg:

A: It’s very cold.

B: I’ll increase the temperature of the air-conditioner.

Rhetorical organisation focuses on the structure of a text according to genre, it varies according to content, topic and purpose. For example, one would recognise a text which begins with “Once upon a time…” as a narrative writing/fairy-tale story. Discourse competence allows language learners to maintain communication with others.

Pragmatic Competence is the ability to use language appropriately in different situations. A learner that possesses pragmatic competence will be able to transmit and interpret intentions (illocutionary force) with the appropriate language depending on the social situations he or she is put in. Illocutionary force comes from speech act theory and illustrates an utterance to perform different functions or a function represented by different utterances depending on context (Searle, 1969). Eg:

Teacher: Please switch off the lights.

Student immediately turns on the light.

(Students know that it is an order and follows the teacher’s order)

In pragmatic competence, we can see how language is used through relationships between people. Pragmatic competence is important as it helps start or maintain social relationships and to avoid miscommunication. Hence, learners also need to learn to be sensitive to different culture practices that will affect the way communication is being conducted.

Strategic Competence is the ability to keep communication going. A learner who possesses this communication competence will be able to maintain communication even when there is a communication breakdown, he or she will also be able to enhance the effectiveness of the communication. Eg:

Using simple words or hand gesture to give directions or to describe an object.

b) State the implications of communicative language teaching towards materials development.

Howatt (1984) claims there are ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ version of communicative approach.  The weak focused on the use English by providing learners with opportunities to communicate and the strong version argued that language can be acquired through communication. There is no one perfect approach to teach because it depends on the learners’ language proficiency.

Activities are designed to improve learners’ fluency through negotiating meaning and sharing information in a communicative-based classroom.  However, accuracy is also a crucial element. According to Brown (1993), accuracy and fluency are “complementary principles” for communicative ability. Learners trying to be fluent need to have language accuracy to be able to produce comprehensible utterances.

Cunningsworth (1995) stated that language skills help learners communicate effectively and complement linguistic knowledge. Vocabulary is important to help learners develop learners’ understanding of the English language. For example, learners have to scan, skim and also summarise the passage when writing a summary of a passage. Learners must good vocabulary, so that they able to produce a meaningful summary writing.

Materials and tasks should reflect authenticity, as they connect the classroom and the outside world. Rogers and Medley (1988) defines authentic as language reflecting “a naturalness of form, and an appropriateness of cultural and situational context that would be found in the language as used by native speakers” (op cit, 468). One problem is the suitability of the materials to match the learner’s language proficiency level and interest because of the different background. Learners could lose their interests if the materials are too difficult for them.

The traditional role of the teacher has changed as a facilitator to facilitate learners’ language learning progress by designing, executing and managing activities in the classroom. Teacher also has to act as an independent participant within the learning-teaching group. The learner plays an active role of becoming in language learning. Teachers have to help learners attain autonomy in their own learning by making learners be aware of the language.

The social context is crucial for communicative approach to be successfully implemented. The communicative approach should be context-dependent to enable learners to become communicatively competent.

c) Locate principles supporting CLT within the KBSM English Language Curriculum and F1 English Language

The objectives given are taken from form 1 KBSM English Language Curriculum.

Objectives (Form 1)

Make friends and talk about themselves, recount experiences and also enquire about the person(s) they are talking to 

Principle 1: Teach communicative competence: grammatical competence plus ability to use grammar appropriately

• To achieve communicative competence, learners must be aware of the rules in grammar. So, based on this objective, they need a certain level of linguistic competence to achieve the aim of the objective. Bachman (1990) states that linguistic competence is the knowledge and application of linguistic items. Therefore, the activities done must contain elements of proper grammatical usage. For instance, one of the activities in this objective is “Introducing oneself”; learners must be acquainted with proper sentence patterns that suits with “Introducing oneself”.   Hence, when learners are introducing themselves using the English Language (if they have the chance to), they would be able to use proper sentence patterns that they have already learned in their lesson.

Principle 2: Practice functions and forms in context rich environment

• According to David Wilkins, “Any individual sentence can be used to perform virtually any function in language and consequently any function may take a variety of forms”. Learners must be able to express through functions as well as demonstrate through form. In terms of function, this principle relates to pragmatic competence. Hedge (2000) stated that pragmatic competence refers to the leaner’s ability to transmit and interpret intentions using appropriate language according to the social context. Learners must be able to express language properly and in-context as to maintain social relationships and to avoid any miscommunication. So, activities being done must be pragmatically competent. For example, when learners are recounting an experience, they must have boundaries in the experience that they are telling in order to not offend other learners in the same class. On the other hand, in terms of form, learners must be able to manifest language being use in speech and writing and this can be done through context rich environment.  Context rich environment is a situation where learners are exposed to linguistic items which reflect real world activities. When learners are exposed to activities which reflect the real world or a situation where they could relate to in their lives, the process of attaining and retaining linguistic items would be much more effective. An activity which reflects real world situation, for instance recounting an experience; learners must be able talk about a situation that they have experienced. Hence, the must have the correct vocabulary (adjectives) to express the situation that they have experience.

Make enquiries about services and products and place an order for the product or services

Principle 1: Teach communicative competence: grammatical competence plus ability to use grammar appropriately

• When making enquiries about services and products and also placing an order, learners must be able to use the WH- questions correctly and this relates to lexical competence. If the learners do not have the proper lexical competence, they would not be able to use proper grammar. When this happens, communicative breakdown will occur. For instance, one of the activities in this objective is role playing activities as a buyer and seller. If learners are not able to produce proper grammar, then interaction between buyer and seller would be affected. In a real-life situation, the seller might misinterpret the message of the buyer. So, having communicative competence allows the learners to be able to engage in a conversation well.

Socialize with friends and in groups and make plans and arrangements for joint activities

Principle 7: Promote Collaborative and Cooperative Learning

• In CLT, learning a language should be collaborative and cooperative. So, learners should interact with each other in order for negotiation of meaning to occur. In a collaborative and cooperative learning environment, scaffolding occurs. The high proficiency learners are able to help and guide the low proficiency learners in doing activities or tasks. Moreover, interaction between learners might help the low proficiency learners to attain certain characteristics of language use. For instance, the low proficiency learners might be able to pick up proper grammatical usage from the high proficiency learners and implement them into their own, thus, raising their own language proficiency.

Principle 8: Provide Error Corrective Feedback

• Interaction between learners promotes error corrective feedback. Positive feedback confirms the correctness of learner’s response while negative feedback relates to error correction. So, if both are delivered effectively, it would facilitate learning. Thus, this would benefit greatly in interactions between low proficiency learners and high proficiency learners.

Obtain information from various text-types such as instructions and notices and obtain factual information on a topic from short texts and present the information briefly to others orally and in writing

Principle 1: Teach communicative competence: grammatical competence plus the ability to use grammar appropriately

• In a presentation, learners are asked to present information on a topic from short text to others orally and in writing. This relates to linguistic competence as learners need to have decent pronunciation during oral presentation and an adequate use of grammar during writing. Hence, activities such as reading aloud can promote correct use of pronunciation. On the other hand, activities such as writing recounts can help learners to master certain grammatical aspects such as the use of linkers.

Principle 8: Provide Error Corrective Feedback

• This principle relates to the interaction between the teacher and learners. Teachers could help students in their pronunciation skills by correcting them during the reading aloud activities and also correcting their grammar mistakes in writing activities. However, teachers should not hesitantly correct every mistake or errors that the learners make as some learners’ affective filter would increase and this can result in learners not able to acquire the targeted language. 

d) Identify general categories and specific items to evaluate chapters in a Malaysian English Language textbook

General categories: according to (Rubdy, 2003) 3P

i)            Psychological validity

- Rationale/learners need

- Independence and autonomy

- Self-development

- Cooperation

- Creativity

ii)           Pedagogical validity

- Guidance

- Choice

- Reflection/exploration/innovation

iii)         Process and content validity 

- Methodology

- Content

- Authenticity

- Appropriacy

- Cultural sensitivity

- Layout graphic

- Accessibility

- Linkage

- Selection/grading
- Sufficiency

- Balance/integration/challenge

- Stimulus/practice/revision

- Flexibility

- National/local curriculum concerns